[Go SDK] Convert logical type arguments to and from schema protos

[Eliaaazzz]

Part of #39684. Depends on #40152 (the first commit); review the last commit.

schema.LogicalType had argT and argV fields that nothing populated, reflectTypeToFieldType left argument_type and argument unset (the TODO(BEAM-9615) in schema.go), and fieldTypeToReflectType ignored them. This PR wires the argument through:

• schema.ToLogicalTypeWithArgument creates a logical type with an argument. The argument must be a value of a built in Go type with an atomic schema type other than []byte, which covers the INT32 arguments of the standard parameterized logical types.
• The registry keys logical types by URN and argument. A schema field with a URN and argument resolves to the logical type registered for that pair, and falls back to a logical type registered for the URN without an argument, so pass through types such as beam:logical_type:var_char:v1 can be registered once for any length. Go ignores non atomic arguments. The BYTE schema type is signed, so a uint8 argument is converted through int8, and a floating point NaN is rejected at registration because it never compares equal.
• FromType emits argument_type and argument for parameterized logical types, and top level parameterized logical types carry the argument in a beam:schema:go:logical_argument:v1 schema option so ToType can recover the Go type.
• FromType returns an error instead of panicking with a nil pointer when a struct kind logical type with a non row storage type is used as a top level type.
• fieldvalue.go converts atomic values between reflect.Value and FieldType/FieldValue, and rejects BYTE and INT16 values outside their range.
• When top level logical type lookup misses, the storage row cannot resolve to the Go type of another registered logical type.

Tests: schema conversion cases for a parameterized field and a parameterized top level type, TestToType_LogicalTypeArguments for matching, missing, unknown, ignored and non atomic arguments, TestLogicalTypeArgumentPrecedence for two arguments and a fallback under one URN (fields and top level), registration validation, and round trip tests for the atomic value conversion. Tests also cover out of range BYTE and INT16 values, and unregistered top level logical types after RegisterType, for value, pointer and defined pointer Go types.

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[codecov]

Codecov Report

❌ Patch coverage is 85.23810% with 31 lines in your changes missing coverage. Please review.
✅ Project coverage is 28.59%. Comparing base (76f6e6d) to head (a33316f).
⚠️ Report is 121 commits behind head on master.

Files with missing lines	Patch %	Lines
...s/go/pkg/beam/core/runtime/graphx/schema/schema.go	71.42%	17 Missing and 7 partials ⚠️
.../pkg/beam/core/runtime/graphx/schema/fieldvalue.go	93.00%	5 Missing and 2 partials ⚠️

Additional details and impacted files

@@              Coverage Diff              @@
##             master   #40153       +/-   ##
=============================================
- Coverage     56.16%   28.59%   -27.57%     
=============================================
  Files          1124      380      -744     
  Lines        178336    70970   -107366     
  Branches       1489        0     -1489     
=============================================
- Hits         100170    20297    -79873     
+ Misses        75645    48835    -26810     
+ Partials       2521     1838      -683     

Flag	Coverage Δ
go	28.59% <85.23%> (-0.54%)	⬇️
java	?
python	?

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